Lead: general information
Updated 31 October 2024
© Crown copyright 2024
This publication is licensed under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 except where otherwise stated. To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: [email protected].
Where we have identified any third party copyright information you will need to obtain permission from the copyright holders concerned.
This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/lead-properties-incident-management-and-toxicology/lead-general-information
Overview
Lead is a metal that is widely distributed in the earth’s crust (soil and rocks), air and water. It is largely emitted into the environment as inorganic salts.
Uses of lead
Lead is used either as a metal or as a chemical compound (for example: inorganic salts). Owing to its valuable physical properties metallic lead has many uses including in storage batteries, cables, solders and steel products, ammunition, shielding systems from radiation and x-rays, circuit boards in computers and electronic equipment, and superconductor and optical technology. Lead compounds are used in cathode ray tubes (now largely replaced by other technologies), colour pigments, enamels and ceramics and in PVC, though these uses are generally in decline.
Historically lead has been used in paint, petrol, food cans and water pipes; these uses have been phased out in the EU. However, old lead containing products may still be in circulation. Leaded petrol was banned in the EU in 2000 with possible exceptions until 2005, while the sale of lead paint was banned in the UK from 1992.
How lead gets into the environment
Lead is naturally present in the environment; however, it has become more widespread because of human (anthropogenic) activities. With the decline in combustion of leaded fuel and the phasing out of lead in pipes and paints, industrial emissions from mining, smelting, recycling, or waste incineration are now the major source of environmental lead.
Exposure to lead
Exposure to inorganic lead occurs primarily through food and drinking water, although exposure may also occur through soil, dust, and air.
Lead in drinking water mostly occurs as a result of old lead plumbing (or the illegal use of lead solder) in the home, and rarely from natural sources.
Young children may exhibit exploratory hand-to-mouth behaviour with non-food items or even ingest them. As a result of this children may be exposed to lead in soils, dusts, and flakes of old paint.
Exposure to the public could also occur through the use of traditional or imported remedies, cosmetics, and pottery (not marketed in the EU) which contain lead. Smoking tobacco and second-hand smoke are sources of lead exposure.
Workplace exposure to lead and inorganic lead compounds may occur in a variety of occupations, including steel welding and spray coating, battery manufacturing or plumbing.
Employers are required by law to limit the exposure of their workers to lead; this is achieved by regular monitoring of workers blood lead levels and subsequently acting if these levels are too high.
How exposure to lead can affect your health
Exposure to high levels of lead in a short time can result in stomach upset, mood changes, poor attention span, headaches, hallucinations and damage to the brain and kidneys in severe cases. Lower-level exposure to lead over a long time can lead to anaemia and high blood pressure, damage to the nervous system, brain and kidneys as well as effects on male and female reproduction. Eating food or drink or breathing in air contaminated with lead or lead compounds for a short period usually does not cause any ill effects. Additionally, in the UK lead levels are under stringent control and exposures to lead in water, air and food are reduced to the lowest practical level to minimise possible risks to health.
Lead and cancer
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) evaluated the available evidence regarding the ability of inorganic lead compounds to cause cancer. IARC concluded that there was sufficient evidence in experimental animals, but only limited evidence in humans from occupational studies in workers exposed to lead for several years. As a result, inorganic lead compounds were classified as probably able to cause cancer in humans.
Vulnerable people
Pregnant women, infants and young children are particularly sensitive to the harmful effects of lead (see below).
Pregnancy and the unborn child
Exposed to lead for a long time may result in miscarriage, stillbirths, or premature births. Children who are exposed to lead in the womb may have a lower IQ, behavioural problems, nerve damage or delayed growth. Lead may also affect both male and female fertility. Information on exposure to chemicals during pregnancy can be found at the following website: http://www.medicinesinpregnancy.org/
Children
Children are particularly sensitive to the effects of lead on the nervous system as their brains are still developing. Children exposed to lead during the first few years of life may have a lower IQ, behavioural problems, or nerve damage.
What to do if you are exposed to lead
If you have any health concerns regarding exposure to lead, seek guidance from your GP or contact NHS 111.
Additional sources of information
NHS – Poisoning
HSE – Lead
HSE – Lead and you
FSA – Advice to frequent eaters of game shot with lead
Email [email protected] if you have any questions about this guidance or [email protected] if you have any other questions.
Feedback survey
Help us improve the compendium of chemical hazards by taking our short survey.